store.theartofservice.com/the-decentralization-toolkit.html
Decentralization
Network topology – Decentralization
This decentralization is often used to compensate for the single-point-failure disadvantage that is present when using a single device as a central node (e.g., in star and tree networks)
Network topology – Decentralization
A fully connected network, complete topology, or is a network topology in which there is a direct link between all pairs of nodes. In a fully connected network with n nodes, there are n(n-1)/2 direct links. Networks designed with this topology are usually very expensive to set up, but provide a high degree of reliability due to the multiple paths for data that are provided by the large number of redundant links between nodes. This topology is mostly seen in military applications.
Decentralization
Concepts of decentralization have been applied to group dynamics and management science in private businesses and organizations, political science, law and public administration, economics and technology.
Decentralization – History
In the mid-1800s Alexis de Tocqueville wrote that the French Revolution began with “a push towards decentralization…[but became,]in the end, an extension of centralization.” In 1863 retired French bureaucrat Maurice Block wrote an article called “Decentralization” for a French journal which reviewed the dynamics of government and bureaucratic centralization and recent French efforts at decentralization of government functions.
Decentralization – History
All my political ideas boil down to a similar formula: political federation or decentralization.”
Decentralization – History
In early twentieth century America a response to the centralization of economic wealth and political power was a decentralist movement
Decentralization – History
Naisbitt’s book outlines 10 “megatrends”, the fifth of which is from centralization to decentralization
Decentralization – History
Bennett’s Decentralization, Intergovernmental Relations and Markets: Towards a Post-Welfare Agenda describes how after World War II governments pursued a centralized “welfarist” policy of entitlements which now has become a “post-welfare” policy of intergovernmental and market-based decentralization.
Decentralization – History
According to a 1999 United Nations Development Programme report:
Decentralization – History
This trend is coupled with a growing interest in the role of civil society and the private sector as partners to governments in seeking new ways of service delivery…Decentralization of governance and the strengthening of local governing capacity is in part also a function of broader societal trends
Decentralization – Systems approach
The United Nations Development Programme report applies to the topic of decentralization “a whole systems perspective, including levels, spheres, sectors and functions and seeing the community level as the entry point at which holistic definitions of development goals are most likely to emerge from the people themselves and where it is most practical to support them
Decentralization – Systems approach
However, decentralization itself has been seen as part of a systems approach
Decentralization – Systems approach
University of California, Irvine’s Institute for Software Research’s “PACE” project is creating an “architectural style for trust management in decentralized applications.” It adopted Rohit Khare’s definition of decentralization: “A decentralized system is one which requires multiple parties to make their own independent decisions” and applies it to Peer-to-peer software creation, writing:
Decentralization – Systems approach
…In such a decentralized system, there is no single centralized authority that makes decisions on behalf of all the parties
Decentralization – Goals
The following four goals or objectives are frequently stated in various analyses of decentralization.
Decentralization – Goals
According to one definition: “Decentralization, or decentralizing governance, refers to the restructuring or reorganization of authority so that there is a system of co-responsibility between institutions of governance at the central, regional and local levels according to the principle of subsidiarity, thus increasing the overall quality and effectiveness of the system of governance, while increasing the authority and capacities of sub-national levels.”
Decentralization – Goals
Theorists believe that local representative authorities with actual discretionary powers are the basis of decentralisation that can lead to local efficiency, equity and development.” Columbia University’s Earth Institute identified one of three major trends relating to decentralization as: “increased involvement of local jurisdictions and civil society in the management of their affairs, with new forms of participation, consultation, and partnerships.”
Decentralization – Goals
Decentralization has been described as a “counterpoint to globalization” which removes decisions from the local and national stage to the global sphere of multi-national or non-national interests. Decentralization brings decision-making back to the sub-national levels. Decentralization strategies must the interrelations of the global, regional, national, sub-national, local levels.
Decentralization – Goals
Decentralized is defined as a property of a system where the agents have some ability to operate “locally.” Both decentralization and diversity are necessary attributes to achieve the self-organizing properties of interest.”
Decentralization – Goals
Advocates of political decentralization hold that greater participation by better informed diverse interests in society will lead to more relevant decisions than those made only by authorities on the national level. Decentralization has been described as a response to demands for diversity.
Decentralization – Goals
In business decentralization leads to a “Management by Results” philosophy which focuses on definite objectives to be achieved by unit results. Decentralization of government programs is said to increase efficiency – and effectivness – due to reduction of congestion in communications, quicker reaction to unanticipated problems, improved ability to deliver of services, improved information about local conditions, and more support from beneficiaries of programs.
Decentralization – Goals
Firms may prefer decentralization because it ensures efficiency by making sure that managers closest to the local information make decisions and in a more timely fashion; that their taking responsibility frees upper management for long term strategizing rather than day-to-day decision-making; that managers have hands on training to prepare them to move up the management hierarchy; that managers are motivated by having the freedom to exercise their own initiative and creativity; that managers and divisions are encouraged to prove that they are profitable, instead of allowing their failures to be masked by the overall profitability of the company.
Decentralization – Goals
The same principles can be applied to government. Decentralization promises to enhance efficiency through both inter-governmental competition with market features and fiscal discipline which assigns tax and expenditure authority to the lowest level of government possible. It works best where members of subnational government have strong traditions of democracy, accountability and professionalism.
Decentralization – Goals
Brancati holds that decentralization can promote peace if it encourages statewide parties to incorporate regional demands and limit the power of regional parties.
Decentralization – Processes
According to the United Nations Development Programme it is “more than a process, it is a way of life and a state of mind.” The report provides a chart-formatted framework for defining the application of the concept ‘decentralization’ describing and elaborating on the “who, what, when, where, why and how” factors in any process of decentralization.
Decentralization – Processes
Some hold that decentralization should not be imposed, but done in a respectful manner.
Decentralization – Processes
The appropriate balance of centralization and decentralization should be studied
Decentralization – Processes
Gauging the appropriate size or scale of decentralized units has been studied in relation to the size of sub-units of hospitals and schools, road networks, administrative units in business and public administration, and especially town and city governmental areas and decision making bodies.
Decentralization – Processes
In creating planned communities (“new towns”), it is important to determine the appropriate population and geographical size. While in earlier years small towns were considered appropriate, by the 1960s, 60,000 inhabitants was considered the size necessary to support a diversified job market and an adequate shopping center and array of services and entertainment. Appropriate size of governmental units for revenue raising also is a consideration.
Decentralization – Processes
Even in bioregionalism, which seeks to reorder many functions and even the boundaries of governments according to physical and environmental features, including watershed boundaries and soil and terrain characteristics, appropriate size must be considered. The unit may be larger than many decentralist bioregionalists prefer.
Decentralization – Processes
There is no one blueprint for decentralization since it depends on the initial state of a country and the power and views of political interests and whether they support or oppose decentralization.
Decentralization – Processes
A variation on this is “inadvertent decentralization”, when other policy innovations produce an unintended decentralization of power and resources
Decentralization – Processes
Decentralization of responsibilities to provinces may be limited only to those provinces or states which want or are capable of handling responsibility
Decentralization – Processes
Measuring the amount of decentralization, especially politically, is difficult because different studies of it use different definitions and measurements. Chanchal Kumar Sharma writes: “a true assessment of the degree of decentralization in a country can be made only if a comprehensive approach is adopted and rather than trying to simplify the syndrome of characteristics into the single dimension of autonomy, interrelationships of various dimensions of decentralization are taken into account.”
Decentralization – Government decentralization
Hall review other works that detail these cycles, including works which analyze the concept of core elites which compete with state accumulation of wealth and how their “intra-ruling-class competition accounts for the rise and fall of states” and of their phases of centralization and decentralization.
Decentralization – Government decentralization
Rising government expenditures, poor economic performance and the rise of free market-influenced ideas have convinced governments to decentralize their operations, to induce competition within their services, to contract out to private firms operating in the market, and to privatize some functions and services entirely.
Decentralization – Government decentralization
It has been called the “new public management” which has been described as decentralization, management by objectives, contracting out, competition within government and consumer orientation.
Decentralization – Political
Political decentralization aims to give citizens or their elected representatives more power
Decentralization – Administrative
Four major forms of administrative decentralization have been described.
Decentralization – Administrative
Deconcentration, the weakest form of decentralization, shifts responsibility for decision-making, finance and implementation of certain public functions from officials of central governments to those in existing districts or, if necessary, new ones under direct control of the central government.
Decentralization – Administrative
Delegation passes down responsibility for decision-making, finance and implementation of certain public functions to semi-autonomous organizations not wholly controlled by the central government, but ultimately accountable to it
Decentralization – Administrative
Devolution transfers all responsibility for decision-making, finance and implementation of certain public functions to the sub-national level, such as a regional, local, or state government.
Decentralization – Administrative
Divestment, also called privatization, may mean merely contracting out services to private companies
Decentralization – Fiscal
Fiscal decentralization means decentralizing revenue raising and/or expenditure of monies to a lower level of government while maintaining financial responsibility
Decentralization – Fiscal
Fiscal decentralization can be achieved through user fees, user participation through monetary or labor contributions, expansion of local property or sales taxes, intergovernmental transfers of central government tax monies to local governments through transfer payments or grants, and authorization of municipal borrowing with national government loan guarantees. Transfers of money may be given conditionally with instructions or unconditionally without them.
Decentralization – Economic or market
Economic decentralization can be done through privatization of public owned functions and businesses, as described briefly above
Decentralization – Economic or market
Since the 1970s there has been deregulation of some industries, like banking, trucking, airlines and telecommunications which resulted generally in more competition and lower prices
Decentralization – Economic or market
Emmanuelle Auriol and Michel Benaim write about the “comparative benefits” of decentralization versus government regulation in the setting of standards
Decentralization – Environmental
Such decentralization has happened in India and other third world nations.
Decentralization – Libertarian socialist decentralization
Libertarian socialism is a group of political philosophies that promote a non-hierarchical, non-bureaucratic society without private property in the means of production
Decentralization – Libertarian socialist decentralization
Adherents propose achieving this through decentralization of political and economic power, usually involving the socialization of most large-scale private property and enterprise (while retaining respect for personal property)
Decentralization – Libertarian socialist decentralization
Political philosophies commonly described as libertarian socialist include most varieties of anarchism (especially anarchist communism, anarchist collectivism, anarcho-syndicalism, and mutualism) as well as autonomism, Communalism, participism, libertarian Marxist philosophies such as council communism and Luxemburgism, and some versions of “utopian socialism” and individualist anarchism
Decentralization – Libertarian socialist decentralization
For Proudhon, mutualism involved creating “industrial democracy,” a system where workplaces would be “handed over to democratically organised workers’ associations
Decentralization – Free market decentralization
Free market ideas popular in the 19th century, such as those of Adam Smith returned to prominence in the 1970s and 1980s
Decentralization – Free market decentralization
There would be no difficulty about efficient control or planning were conditions so simple that a single person or board could effectively survey all the relevant facts. It is only as the factors which have to be taken into account become so numerous that it is impossible to gain a synoptic view of them that decentralization becomes imperative.
Decentralization – Free market decentralization
According to Bruce M
Decentralization – Free market decentralization
This also was true in banking and finance, which saw decentralization as leading to instability as state and local banks competed with the big New York City firms
Decentralization – Free market decentralization
Her 1984 book Cities and the Wealth of Nations proposed a solution to the various ills plaguing cities whose economies were being ruined by centralized national governments: decentralization through the “multiplication of sovereignties”, i.e., acceptance of the right of cities to secede from the larger nation states that were squelching their ability to produce wealth.
Decentralization – Technological decentralization
Technology includes tools, materials, skills, techniques and processes by which goals are accomplished in the public and private spheres. Concepts of decentralization of technology are used throughout all types of technology, including especially information technology and appropriate technology.
Decentralization – Technological decentralization
Technologies often mentioned as best implemented in a decentralized manner, include: water purification, delivery and waste water disposal, agricultural technology and energy technology
Decentralization – Appropriate technology
“Appropriate technology”, originally described as “intermediate technology” by economist E
Decentralization – Critiques
If there is a loss of economies of scale in procurement of labor or resources, the expense of decentralization can rise, even as central governments lose control over financial resources.
Decentralization – Critiques
Other challenges, and even dangers, include the possibility that corrupt local elites can capture regional or local power centers, while constituents lose representation; patronage politics will become rampant and civil servants feel compromised; further necessary decentralization can be stymied; incomplete information and hidden decision-making can occur up and down the hierarchies; centralized power centers can find reasons to frustrate decentralization and bring power back to themselves.
Decentralization – Critiques
It has been noted that while decentralization may increase “productive efficiency” it may undermine “allocative efficiency” by making redistribution of wealth more difficult. Decentralization will cause greater disparities between rich and poor regions, especially during times of crisis when the national government may not be able to help regions needing it.
Decentralization – Further reading
Furniss, Norman (1974). “The Practical Significance of Decentralization”. The Journal of Politics 36 (4): 958–82. doi:10.2307/2129402. ISSN 0022-3816.
Decentralization – Further reading
Merilee Serrill Grindle, Going Local: Decentralization, Democratization, And The Promise of Good Governance, Princeton University Press, 2007, ISBN 069112907X, 9780691129075
Decentralization – Further reading
Daniel Treisman, The Architecture of Government: Rethinking Political Decentralization, Cambridge University Press, 2007, ISBN 0521872294, 9780521872294
Decentralization – Further reading
Richard M. Burton, Børge Obel, Design Models for Hierarchical Organizations: Computation, Information, and Decentralization, Springer, 1995, ISBN 079239609X, 9780792396093
Decentralization – Further reading
Dubois, H.F.W. & Fattore, G. (2009), Definitions and typologies in public administration research: the case of decentralization’, International Journal of Public Administration, 32(8): pp. 704–727.
Decentralization – Further reading
Miller, Michelle Ann & Tim Bunnell. (2012), guest editors. ‘Asian Cities in an Era of Decentralisation’, Space and Polity, Vol.16, No.1.
Decentralization – Further reading
Sharma, Chanchal Kumar (2006), Decentralization Dilemma: Measuring the Degree and Evaluating the Outcomes, The Indian Journal of Political Science, Vol.67, No.1, pp. 49–64.
Decentralization – Further reading
Sharma, Chanchal Kumar (2008), Emerging Dimensions of Decentralization Debate in the Age of Glocalization, MPRA Paper 6734, University Library of Munich, Germany; revised version Published as “Emerging Dimensions of Decentralization Debate in the Age of Globalization” in Indian Journal of Federal Studies Vol. 19 No.1 pp 47–65( year 2009).
Decentralization – Further reading
Schakel, Arjan H. (2008), Validation of the Regional Authority Index], Regional and Federal Studies, Routlege, Vol. 18 (2).
Decentralization – Further reading
Decentralization, article at the “Restructuring local government project” of Dr. Mildred Warner, Cornell University includes a number of articles on decentralization trends and theories.
Decentralization – Further reading
Peter Aucoin, Herman Bakvis, The Centralization-Decentralization Conundrum: Organization and Management in the Canadian Government, IRPP, 1988, ISBN 0886450705, 9780886450700
Decentralization – Further reading
Jean-Paul Faguet, Decentralization and Popular Democracy: Governance from Below in Bolivia, University of Michigan Press, 2012, ISBN 0472118196, 9780472118199
Decentralization – Further reading
Harvey S. Rosen, Editor, Fiscal Federalism: Quantitative Studies National Bureau of Economic Research Project Report, NBER-Project Report, University of Chicago Press, 2008, ISBN 0226726231, 9780226726236
Decentralization – Further reading
Tim Campbell, Quiet Revolution: Decentralization and the Rise of Political Participation in Latin American Cities, University of Pittsburgh Press, 2003, ISBN 0822957965, 9780822957966
Decentralization – Further reading
Fisman, Raymond and Roberta Gatti (2002), Decentralization and Corruption: Evidence Across Countries, Journal of Public Economics, Vol.83, No.3, pp. 325–45.
Decentralization – Further reading
Frischmann, Eva (2010), Decentralization and Corruption. A Cross-Country Analysis, Grin Verlag, 978-3640710959.
Decentralization – Further reading
Miller, Michelle Ann, ed. (2012). Autonomy and Armed Separatism in South and Southeast Asia (Singapore: ISEAS).
XMPP – Decentralization and addressing
The XMPP network uses a Client–server model|client–server architecture (clients do not talk directly to one another). However, it is decentralized—by design, there is no central authoritative server, as there is with services such as AOL Instant Messenger or Windows Live Messenger. Some confusion often arises on this point as there is a public XMPP server being run at jabber.org, to which a large number of users subscribe. However, anyone may run their own XMPP server on their own domain.
XMPP – Decentralization and addressing
Every user on the network has a unique Jabber ID (usually abbreviated as JID). To avoid requiring a central server to maintain a list of IDs, the JID is structured like an email address with a username and a domain name (or IP addressRFC 6122) for the server where that user resides, separated by an at sign (@), such as [email protected].
XMPP – Decentralization and addressing
Since a user may wish to log in from multiple locations, they may specify a ‘resource’. A resource identifies a particular client belonging to the user (for example home, work, or mobile). This may be included in the JID by appending a slash followed by the name of the resource. For example, the full JID of a user’s mobile account would be [email protected]/mobile.
XMPP – Decentralization and addressing
Each resource may have specified a numerical value called ‘priority’. Messages simply sent to [email protected] will go to the client with highest priority, but those sent to [email protected]/mobile will go only to the mobile client. The highest priority is the one with largest numerical value.
XMPP – Decentralization and addressing
JIDs without a username part are also valid, and may be used for system messages and control of special features on the server. A resource remains optional for these JIDs as well.
XMPP – Decentralization and addressing
The means to route messages based on a logical endpoint identifier – the JID, instead of by an explicit IP Address present opportunities to use XMPP as an Overlay network implementation on top of different underlay networks.
Decentralization
Concepts of decentralization have been applied to group dynamics and management science in private businesses and organizations, political science, law and public administration, economics and technology.
Decentralization – History
Schmidt, Democratizing France: The Political and Administrative History of Decentralization, Cambridge University Press, 2007, [http://books.google.com/books?id=ZsltI4XKXTUCpg=PA22dq=word+centralizationhl=ensa=Xei=58sSUc_MFfKB0QHC6oFQved=0CFoQ6AEwBw#v=onepageq=word%20centralizationf=false p
Decentralization – History
In 1863 retired French bureaucrat Maurice Block wrote an article called “Decentralization” for a French journal which reviewed the dynamics of government and bureaucratic centralization and recent French efforts at decentralization of government functions.Robert Leroux, French Liberalism in the 19th Century: An Anthology, Chapter 6: Maurice Block on Decentralization, Routledge, 2012, [http://books.google.com/books?id=Hhf1iGshBKECpg=PA255dq=19th+century+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=csUSUaWxJYHj0gHnuoCoBQved=0CD0Q6AEwAg#v=onepageq=19th%20century%20decentralizationf=false p
Decentralization – History
And from the accumulation of these local, active, persnickety freedoms, is born the most efficient counterweight against the claims of the central government, even if it were supported by an impersonal, collective will.[http://www.ciesin.org/decentralization/English/General/history_fao.html A History of Decentralization], Earth Institute of Columbia University website, accessed February 4, 2013
Decentralization – History
* wrote: All my economic ideas as developed over twenty-five years can be summed up in the words: agricultural-industrial federation. All my political ideas boil down to a similar formula: political federation or decentralization.Du principe Fédératif (Principle of Federation), 1863.
Decentralization – History
In early twentieth century America a response to the centralization of economic wealth and political power was a decentralist movement
Decentralization – History
Naisbitt’s book outlines 10 “megatrends”, the fifth of which is from centralization to decentralization.Sam Inkinen, Mediapolis: Aspects of Texts, Hypertexts and Multimedial Communication, Volume 25 of Research in Text Theory, Walter de Gruyter, 1999, [http://books.google.com/books?id=UdOg403f5ykCpg=PA272dq=Naisbitt+Megatrends+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=JRcUUfDQDO630QHN2YHoDgved=0CGsQ6AEwCw#v=onepageq=Naisbitt%20Megatrends%20decentralizationf=false p
Decentralization – History
Bennett’s Decentralization, Intergovernmental Relations and Markets: Towards a Post-Welfare Agenda describes how after World War II governments pursued a centralized welfarist policy of entitlements which now has become a post-welfare policy of intergovernmental and market-based decentralization.
Decentralization – Systems approach
It involves seeing multi-level frameworks and continuous, synergistic processes of interaction and iteration of cycles as critical for achieving wholeness in a decentralized system and for sustaining its development.””Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions”,1999, p
Decentralization – Systems approach
However, decentralization itself has been seen as part of a systems approach
Decentralization – Systems approach
Los Alamos National Laboratory, for University of California Los Angeles 1999 conference Decentralization Two.
Decentralization – Systems approach
University of California, Irvine’s Institute for Software Research’s PACE project is creating an architectural style for trust management in decentralized applications. It adopted Rohit Khare’s definition of decentralization: A decentralized system is one which requires multiple parties to make their own independent decisions and applies it to Peer-to-peer software creation, writing:
Decentralization – Goals
ISBN 1402047002, 9781402047008 The following four goals or objectives are frequently stated in various analyses of decentralization.
Decentralization – Goals
According to one definition: Decentralization, or decentralizing governance, refers to the restructuring or reorganization of authority so that there is a system of co-responsibility between institutions of governance at the central, regional and local levels according to the principle of subsidiarity, thus increasing the overall quality and effectiveness of the system of governance, while increasing the authority and capacities of sub-national levels.”Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions”, 1999, p
Decentralization – Goals
Theorists believe that local representative authorities with actual discretionary powers are the basis of decentralisation that can lead to local efficiency, equity and development.” Columbia University’s Earth Institute identified one of three major trends relating to decentralization as: increased involvement of local jurisdictions and civil society in the management of their affairs, with new forms of participation, consultation, and partnerships.
Decentralization – Goals
Decentralization has been described as a counterpoint to globalization which removes decisions from the local and national stage to the global sphere of multi-national or non-national interests. Decentralization brings decision-making back to the sub-national levels. Decentralization strategies must the interrelations of the global, regional, national, sub-national, local levels.”Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions”, 1999, p. 12-13.
Decentralization – Goals
Norman L. Johnson writes that diversity plays an important role in decentralized systems like ecosystems, social groups, large organizations, political systems. Diversity is defined to be unique properties of entities, agents, or individuals that are not shared by the larger group, population, structure. Decentralized is defined as a property of a system where the agents have some ability to operate locally.” Both
Decentralization – Goals
Quote: …if demographic diversity promotes greater decentralization, the size of the public
Decentralization – Goals
sector is not affected 10 consequently.
Decentralization – Goals
Silverman, Public Sector Decentralization: Economic Policy and Sector Investment Programs, Volume 188, World Bank Publications, 1992, [ books.google.com/books?id=XtoXuSHMclICpg=PA4dq=efficiency+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=Q90ZUZC3F4rV0gG86IGIBwved=0CEUQ6AEwBA#v=onepageq=efficiency%20decentralizationf=false p
Decentralization – Goals
Brancati holds that decentralization can promote peace if it encourages statewide parties to incorporate regional demands and limit the power of regional parties.Dawn Brancati, [ books.google.com/books/about/Peace_by_Design_Managing_Intrastate_Conf.html?id=g7eLksrA8LAC Peace by Design:Managing Intrastate Conflict through Decentralization], Oxford University Press, 2009, ISBN 0191615226, 9780191615221
Decentralization – Processes
The report provides a chart-formatted framework for defining the application of the concept ‘decentralization’ describing and elaborating on the who, what, when, where, why and how factors in any process of decentralization.”Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions, 1999, p
Decentralization – Processes
Some hold that decentralization should not be imposed, but done in a respectful manner.”Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions”, 1999, p
Decentralization – Processes
182], ISBN 0203219996, 9780203219997Aaron Tesfaye, Political Power and Ethnic Federalism: The Struggle for Democracy in Ethiopa, University Press of America, 2002, [http://books.google.com/books?id=XD9oFjvFurACpg=PA44dq=%22appropriate+size%22+government+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=Gr0bUerHCofB0QG6v4Agved=0CEcQ6AEwBA#v=onepageq=%22appropriate%20size%22%20government%20decentralizationf=false p
Decentralization – Processes
Appropriate size of governmental units for revenue raising also is a consideration.Harry Ward Richardson, Urban economics, Dryden Press, 1978, [http://books.google.com/books?ei=Gr0bUerHCofB0QG6v4Agid=d9YpAQAAMAAJdq=%22appropriate+size%22+government+decentralizationq=%22appropriate+size%22+#search_anchor p
Decentralization – Processes
Even in bioregionalism, which seeks to reorder many functions and even the boundaries of governments according to physical and environmental features, including Drainage basin|watershed boundaries and soil and terrain characteristics, appropriate size must be considered
Decentralization – Processes
Fattore, [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01900690902908760 Definitions and typologies in public administration research: the case of decentralization], International Journal of Public Administration, Volume 32, Issue 8, 2009, pp
Decentralization – Processes
A variation on this is inadvertent decentralization, when other policy innovations produce an unintended decentralization of power and resources. In both China and Russia, lower level authorities attained greater powers than intended by central authorities.”Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions”, 1999, p. 19–20.
Decentralization – Processes
Some privatization may be more appropriate to an urban than a rural area; some types of privatization may be more appropriate for some states and provinces but not others.”Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions”, 1999, p
Decentralization – Processes
Chanchal Kumar Sharma writes: a true assessment of the degree of decentralization in a country can be made only if a comprehensive approach is adopted and rather than trying to simplify the syndrome of characteristics into the single dimension of autonomy, interrelationships of various dimensions of decentralization are taken into account.Chanchal Kumar Sharma, [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=955113 Decentralization Dilemma: Measuring the Degree and Evaluating the Outcomes], The Indian Journal of Political Science, Vol
Decentralization – Government decentralization
Hall, Rise and Demise: Comparing World Systems, Westview Press, 1997, [http://books.google.com/books?id=sIpw_9oI0RgCprintsec=frontcoverdq=Chase-Dunn+Hall+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=8Q0TUcCODofA9QTR-oGYCwved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepageq=decentralizationf=false p
Decentralization – Government decentralization
Chaturvedi, Mittal Publications, 2003, [http://books.google.com/books?id=kpohGPGIyYMCpg=PA229dq=neo-liberalism+Mishra+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=2xYpUeuBNsXw0QGC8oEIved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepageq=neo-liberalism%20Mishra%20decentralizationf=false p
Decentralization – Government decentralization
Government decentralization has both political and administrative aspects. Its decentralization may be territorial, moving power from a central city to other localities, and it may be functional, moving decision-making from the top administrator of any branch of government to lower level officials, or divesting of the function entirely through privatization.”Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions”, 1999, p. 5-8.
Decentralization – Government decentralization
It has been called the new public management which has been described as decentralization, management by objectives, contracting out, competition within government and consumer orientation.Managing Decentralisation: A New Role for Labour Market Policy, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Local Economic and Employment Development (Program), OECD Publishing, 2003, [http://books.google.com/books?id=LJh1onzfJMICpg=PA135dq=New+Public+Management+Decentralisationhl=ensa=Xei=6WgUUcjVJevW0gHs3oH4AQved=0CEcQ6AEwBA#v=onepageq=New%20Public%20Management%20Decentralisationf=false p 135], ISBN 9264104704, 9789264104709
Decentralization – Political
Political decentralization aims to give citizens or their elected representatives more Power (sociology)|power
Decentralization – Administrative
Four major forms of administrative decentralization have been described.[http://www.ciesin.org/decentralization/English/General/Different_forms.html Different forms of decentralization], Earth Institute of Columbia University, accessed February 5, 2013.”Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions”, 1999, p. 8.
Decentralization – Administrative
* Deconcentration, the weakest form of decentralization, shifts responsibility for decision-making, finance and implementation of certain public functions from officials of central governments to those in existing districts or, if necessary, new ones under direct control of the central government.
Decentralization – Administrative
*Delegation passes down responsibility for decision-making, finance and implementation of certain public functions to semi-autonomous organizations not wholly controlled by the central government, but ultimately accountable to it
Decentralization – Administrative
*Devolution transfers all responsibility for decision-making, finance and implementation of certain public functions to the sub-national level, such as a regional, local, or state government.
Decentralization – Administrative
*Divestment, also called privatization, may mean merely contracting out services to private companies
Decentralization – Fiscal
It actually can be a way of increasing central government control of lower levels of government, if it is not linked to other kinds of responsibilities and authority.David King, Fiscal Tiers: The Economics of Multilevel Government, George Allen and Unwin, 1984.Nico Groenendijk, Fiscal federalism Revisited paper presented at Institutions in Transition Conference organized by IMAD, Slovania Ljublijana.”Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions”, 1999, p
Decentralization – Fiscal
Transfers of money may be given conditionally with instructions or unconditionally without them.www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/decentralization/fiscal.htm Intergovernmental Fiscal Relations], Decentralization and Subnational Economies project, World Bank website, accessed February 9, 2013.
Decentralization – Economic or market
Since the 1970s there has been deregulation of some industries, like banking, trucking, airlines and telecommunications which resulted generally in more competition and lower prices
Decentralization – Economic or market
Some argue that government standardisation in areas from commodity market, inspection and standardized testing|testing Procurement|procurement bidding, Building codes, Professional degree|professional and vocational education, trade certification, safety, etc. are necessary. Emmanuelle Auriol and Michel Benaim write about the comparative
Decentralization – Economic or market
benefits of decentralization versus government regulation in the setting of standards
Decentralization – Environmental
Such decentralization has happened in IndiaI
Decentralization – Libertarian socialist decentralization
Libertarian socialism is a group of political philosophy|political philosophies that promote a non-hierarchical, non-bureaucratic society without private property in the means of production
Decentralization – Libertarian socialist decentralization
The Growth of Economic Thought Duke University Press (1991) p.446 Adherents propose achieving this through decentralization of political and economic power, usually involving the socialization of most large-scale private property and enterprise (while retaining respect for personal property)
Decentralization – Libertarian socialist decentralization
Political philosophies commonly described as libertarian socialist include most varieties of anarchism (especially anarchist communism, Collectivist anarchism|anarchist collectivism, anarcho-syndicalism, and mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism[http://www.mutualist.org/id32.html A Mutualist FAQ: A.4
Decentralization – Libertarian socialist decentralization
For Proudhon, Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism involved creating industrial democracy, a system where workplaces would be handed over to democratically organised workers’ associations
Decentralization – Free market decentralization
Free market ideas popular in the 19th century, such as those of Adam Smith returned to prominence in the 1970s and 1980s
Decentralization – Free market decentralization
According to Bruce M
Decentralization – Free market decentralization
*Tibor R. Machan, Private Rights Public Illusions, Transaction Publishers, 1995, [http://books.google.com/books?id=W1WFgQLS-RcCpg=PA99dq=%22Big+Business+and+the+Rise+of+American+Statism%22hl=ensa=Xei=htkjUZ2bIMHB0AGC6oGYCQved=0CD4Q6AEwAw#v=onepageq=%22Big%20Business%20and%20the%20Rise%20of%20American%20Statism%22f=false p. 99], ISBN 141283192X, 9781412831925
Decentralization – Free market decentralization
Taft and Woodrow Wilson passed as progressive reforms centralizing laws like The Federal Reserve Act of 1913 that gave control of the monetary system to the wealthiest bankers; the formation of monopoly public utilities that made competition with those monopolies illegal; federal inspection of meat packers biased against small companies; extending Interstate Commerce Commission to regulating telephone companies and keeping rates high to benefit ATT; and using the Sherman Anti-trust Act against companies which might combine to threaten larger or monopoly companies.Gabriel Kolko, The Triumph of Conservatism: A Reinterpretation of American History, 1900–1916, Chapter Two: Competition and Decentralization: The Failure to Rationalize Industry, Simon and Schuster, 2008, [http://books.google.com/books?id=jTyfQk1zMTYCpg=PA309dq=%22Gabriel+Kolko%22+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=60UkUeCWGbG80QHOjICICQved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepageq=decentralizationf=false p
Decentralization – Free market decentralization
2], ISBN 0754674150, 9780754674153 Her 1980 book The Question of Separatism: Quebec and the Struggle over Sovereignty supported secession of Quebec from Canada.Jane Jacobs, The Question of Separatism: Quebec and the Struggle over Sovereignty, (1980 Random House and 2011 Baraka Books), ISBN 978-1-926824-06-2 Her 1984 book Cities and the Wealth of Nations proposed a solution to the various ills plaguing cities whose economies were being ruined by centralized national governments: decentralization through the multiplication of sovereignties, i.e., acceptance of the right of cities to secede from the larger nation states that were squelching their ability to produce wealth.Gopal Balakrishnan, Mapping the Nation, Verso, 1996, [http://books.google.com/books?id=hdrfDqF3fLoCpg=PA277dq=Jane+Jacobs+Cities+and+the+wealth+of+nations+multiplication+of+sovereigntieshl=ensa=Xei=y-EbUdzvOcLi0gHkvoCIAQved=0CDsQ6AEwAg#v=onepageq=Jane%20Jacobs%20Cities%20and%20the%20wealth%20of%20nations%20multiplication%20of%20sovereigntiesf=false p
Decentralization – Technological decentralization
Foldvary, Daniel Bruce Klein, Editors, The Half-Life of Policy Rationales: How New Technology Affects Old Policy Issues NYU Press, 2003, [http://books.google.com/books?id=pEg2pC6entUCpg=PA184dq=Half-Life+Policy+Rationales+Decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=wRwtUY7NKeqw0AHElIGACAved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepageq=Half-Life%20Policy%20Rationales%20Decentralizationf=false p
Decentralization – Information technology
Information technology encompasses computers and computer networks, as well as information distribution technologies such as television and telephones. The whole computer industry of computer hardware, software, electronics, internet, telecommunications equipment, e-commerce and computer services are included.
Decentralization – Information technology
Decentralization is particularly applicable to business or management units which have a high level of independence, complicated products and customers, and technology less relevant to other units.John Baschab, Jon Piot, The Executive’s Guide to Information Technology, John Wiley Sons, 2007, [ books.google.com/books?id=YokHUkRBZoACpg=PA119dq=decentralization+information+technologyhl=ensa=Xei=OtwqUYr3CMzH0AHs94CIBAved=0CHsQ6AEwCw#v=onepageq=decentralization%20information%20technologyf=false p
Decentralization – Information technology
David Garson, Modern Public Information Technology Systems: Issues and Challenges, IGI Global, 2007, [ books.google.com/books?id=mf_kb6MKrOYCpg=PT128dq=information+technology+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=D7cqUbnwLtCr0AGw0IDgBwved=0CFgQ6AEwBQ p
Decentralization – Information technology
316], ISBN 0596553897, 9780596553890 Wikipedia itself has been described as decentralized.Axel Bruns, Blogs, Wikipedia, Second Life, and Beyond: From Production to Produsage, Peter Lang (publishing company)|Peter Lang, 2008, [ books.google.com/books?id=xWxmFNMKXhECpg=PA231dq=wikipedia+decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=JMsqUbfjJJC70AGyjIHYDwved=0CEsQ6AEwBA p
Decentralization – Information technology
Decentralization continues throughout the industry, for example as the decentralized architecture of wireless routers installed in homes and offices supplement and even replace phone companies relatively centralized long-range cell towers.Adi Kamdar and Peter Eckersley, [https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2013/02/fcc-public-super-wifi-networks Can the FCC Create Public Super WiFi Networks?], Electronic Frontier Foundation, February 5, 2013.
Decentralization – Information technology
Related ideas coming out of Silicon Valley included the free software and creative commons movements which produced visions of a networked information economy.Jennifer Holt, Alisa Perren, Media Industries: History, Theory, and Method, John Wiley Sons, 2011, [ books.google.com/books?id=SJ1ZYY-8kj4Cpg=RA4-PA1996dq=%22free+market%22+decentralization+of+corporations+libertarianhl=ensa=Xei=R9QjUfyxJNO20AGUnYA4ved=0CDoQ6AEwAg#v=onepageq=%22free%20market%22%20decentralization%20of%20corporations%20libertarianf=false p
Decentralization – Information technology
Because human interactions in cyberspace transcend physical geography, there is a necessity for new theories in legal and other rule-making systems to deal with decentralized decision-making processes in such systems
Decentralization – Centralization and redecentralization of the Internet
The New Yorker reports that although the Internet was originally decentralized, in recent years it has become less so: a staggering percentage of communications flow through a small set of corporations—and thus, under the profound influence of those companies and other institutions […] One solution, espoused by some programmers, is to make the Internet more like it used to be—less centralized and more distributed.
Decentralization – Centralization and redecentralization of the Internet
Examples of projects that attempt to contribute to the redecentralization of the Internet include ArkOS, Diaspora (social network)|Diaspora, FreedomBox and Namecoin, as well as advocacy group Redecentralize.org, which provides support for projects that aim to make the Web less centralized.
Decentralization – Centralization and redecentralization of the Internet
In an interview with BBC Radio 5 Live one of the co-founders of Redecentralize.org explained that:
Decentralization – Appropriate technology
Appropriate technology, originally described as intermediate technology by economist E
Decentralization – Critiques
If there is a loss of economies of scale in procurement of labor or resources, the expense of decentralization can rise, even as central governments lose control over financial resources.
Decentralization – Critiques
Decentralization will cause greater disparities between rich and poor regions, especially during times of crisis when the national government may not be able to help regions needing it.Summary of Remy Prud’homme, [http://government.cce.cornell.edu/doc/summary.asp?id=prudhomme1995 The Dangers of Decentralization], World Bank Research Observer, 10(2):201, 1995, linked from [http://government.cce.cornell.edu/doc/viewpage_r.asp?ID=Decentralization Decentralization], article “Restructuring local government project” of Dr
Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol – Decentralization and addressing
The XMPP network uses a Client–server model|client–server architecture (clients do not talk directly to one another)
Organizing (management) – Centralization, decentralization, and formalization
*’Centralization’ – The location of decision making authority near top organizational levels.
Organizing (management) – Centralization, decentralization, and formalization
*’Decentralization’ – The location of decision making authority near lower organizational levels.
Organizing (management) – Centralization, decentralization, and formalization
*’Formalization’ – The written documentation used to direct and control employees.
Decentralisation – Libertarian socialist decentralization
For Proudhon, Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism involved creating industrial democracy, a system where workplaces would be handed over to democratically organised workers’ associations
Decentralisation – Free market decentralization
Free market ideas popular in the 19th century, such as those of Adam Smith returned to prominence in the 1970s and 1980s
Decentralisation – Free market decentralization
2], ISBN 9780754674153 Her 1980 book The Question of Separatism: Quebec and the Struggle over Sovereignty supported secession of Quebec from Canada.Jane Jacobs, The Question of Separatism: Quebec and the Struggle over Sovereignty, (1980 Random House and 2011 Baraka Books), ISBN 978-1-926824-06-2 Her 1984 book Cities and the Wealth of Nations proposed a solution to the various ills plaguing cities whose economies were being ruined by centralized national governments: decentralization through the multiplication of sovereignties, i.e., acceptance of the right of cities to secede from the larger nation states that were squelching their ability to produce wealth.Gopal Balakrishnan, Mapping the Nation, Verso, 1996, [http://books.google.com/books?id=hdrfDqF3fLoCpg=PA277dq=Jane+Jacobs+Cities+and+the+wealth+of+nations+multiplication+of+sovereigntieshl=ensa=Xei=y-EbUdzvOcLi0gHkvoCIAQved=0CDsQ6AEwAg#v=onepageq=Jane%20Jacobs%20Cities%20and%20the%20wealth%20of%20nations%20multiplication%20of%20sovereigntiesf=false p
Decentralisation – Technological decentralization
Foldvary, Daniel Bruce Klein, Editors, The Half-Life of Policy Rationales: How New Technology Affects Old Policy Issues NYU Press, 2003, [http://books.google.com/books?id=pEg2pC6entUCpg=PA184dq=Half-Life+Policy+Rationales+Decentralizationhl=ensa=Xei=wRwtUY7NKeqw0AHElIGACAved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepageq=Half-Life%20Policy%20Rationales%20Decentralizationf=false p
International Brotherhood of Teamsters – Decentralization, deregulation and drift
Under General President Frank Fitzsimmons, authority within the Teamsters was decentralized back into the hands of regional, joint council, and local leaders
International Brotherhood of Teamsters – Decentralization, deregulation and drift
But decentralization of power within the union led several Teamster leaders in California to repudiate this agreement without Fitzsimmons’ permission and organize large numbers of field workers
International Brotherhood of Teamsters – Decentralization, deregulation and drift
In October 1973, Fitzsimmons ended the long-running jurisdictional dispute with the International Union of United Brewery, Flour, Cereal, Soft Drink and Distillery Workers|United Brewery Workers, and the Brewery Workers merged with the Teamsters.Brewery Workers Merger With Teamsters Is Backed. New York Times. October 24, 1973.
International Brotherhood of Teamsters – Decentralization, deregulation and drift
In 1979 Congress passed legislation that deregulated the freight industry, removing the Interstate Commerce Commission’s power to impose detailed regulatory tariffs on interstate carriers
International Brotherhood of Teamsters – Decentralization, deregulation and drift
Deregulation had catastrophic effects on the Teamsters, opening up the industry to competition from non-union companies who sought to cut costs by avoiding unionization and curbing wages. Nearly 200 unionized carriers went out of business in the first few years of deregulation, leaving thirty percent of Teamsters in the freight division unemployed. The remaining unionized carriers demanded concessions in wages, work rules, and hours.
International Brotherhood of Teamsters – Decentralization, deregulation and drift
Williams’ successor, Jackie Presser, was prepared to grant most of these concessions in the form of a special freight “relief rider” that would cut wages by up to 35 percent and establish two-tier wages. Teamsters for a Democratic Union, which had grown out of efforts to reject the 1976 freight agreement, launched a successful national campaign to defeat the relief rider, which was defeated by a vote of 94,086 to 13,082.
International Brotherhood of Teamsters – Decentralization, deregulation and drift
The pressure on the freight industry and the national freight agreement continued, however. By the end of the 1990s the National Master Freight Agreement, which had covered 500,000 drivers in the late 1970s, dropped to less than 200,000, with numerous local riders weakening it further in some areas.
Criticism of libertarianism – Government decentralization
John Donahue argues that if political power were radically shifted to local authorities, parochial local interests would predominate at the expense of the whole, and that this would exacerbate current problems with collective action.Donahue, John. (1 May 1997). [http://www.prospect.org/print/V8/32/donahue-j.html The Devil in Devolution.] American Prospect. 8 (32).
Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools – Decentralization
Regional offices known as learning communities, each with an area superintendent, were implemented in the 2007-2008 school year.[http://pages.cms.k12.nc.us/decentralization/ Decentralization]
Point-to-point (network topology) – Decentralization
This decentralization is often used to compensate for the single-point-failure disadvantage that is present when using a single device as a central node (e.g., in star and tree networks)
Point-to-point (network topology) – Decentralization
This is similar in some ways to a ‘grid network’, where a linear or ring topology is used to connect systems in multiple directions. A multidimensional ring has a torus|toroidal topology, for instance.
Point-to-point (network topology) – Decentralization
A ‘fully connected network’, ‘complete topology’, or ‘#Full mesh|full mesh topology’ is a network topology in which there is a direct link between all pairs of nodes
Alejandro Toledo – Decentralization
Under Toledo’s predecessor, Fujimori, the governing authority in Peru was condensed and centralized. A Fujimori-dominated congress passed a new constitution in 1993, which consolidated the Bicameralism|bicameral legislature into a Unicameralism|unicameral legislature with a single national district. Under Fujimori local governments retained minimal legal authority including fees for utilities, basic civil registries, and management of public spaces and markets.
Alejandro Toledo – Decentralization
ISBN 978-0-271-03790-5 However, when Peru Possible’s rival political party APRA made significant gains in regional elections, the Toledo administration halted its decentralization program by withholding power in the areas of revenue and expenditure
Alejandro Toledo – Decentralization
Toledo’s plan for decentralization enjoyed widespread popular support. Most of the opposition to his program came from, and most of the difficulty in implementing his proposals was owing to, politicians and bureaucratic agencies who were accustomed to a centralized form of government.
History of Somalia – Decentralization
Following the outbreak of the civil war and the ensuing collapse of the central government, Somalia’s residents reverted to local forms of conflict resolution, either secular, traditional or Islamic law, with a provision for appeal of all sentences. The legal structure in Somalia is thus divided along three lines: Civil law (legal system)|civil law, religious law and Custom (law)|customary law.
Hans Kelsen – Centralization and decentralization
In Kelsen’s general assessments, centralization was to often be associated with more modern and highly developed forms of enhancements and improvements to sociological and cultural norms, while the presence of decentralization was a measure of more primitive and less sophisticated observations concerning sociological and cultural norms.
Boulder City, Nevada – Trendsetter for decentralization
The nearby city of Henderson, founded in 1943 and based around the magnesium industry was another early example of decentralization before Clark County had a significant population: “…the region began to decentralize and regroup as a multi-centered area early in its history.”Gottdiener, Collins Dickens, p 26 The independent governments of Henderson, Nevada|Henderson, North Las Vegas, Las Vegas, and Boulder City have perpetuated the fragmented nature of the region, giving each city its individual character, as well as generally stymieing the outward growth of these cities.Gottdiener, Collins Dickens, p 28
Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda – Decentralization and public-private partnerships
In 2000 the government began a process of decentralization, giving the country’s 30 Districts of Rwanda|districts more revenues and decision-making authority. Districts, which were already nominally the owners of rural water infrastructure, now began to develop their capacity to plan and execute infrastructure projects.
Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda – Decentralization and public-private partnerships
In 2002 local government in the Northern Byumba Province, inspired by similar experiences in neighboring Uganda, contracted out service provision to the local private sector in a form of public-private partnership.
Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda – Decentralization and public-private partnerships
Following that local experience, the government eventually abandoned its policy of community management and decided in 2004 to promote local public-private partnerships following the Byumba model. With the backing up of the national government, districts thus competitively bid out and signed contracts with private service providers throughout the country. In 2007, 140 rural piped water systems (25% of the total) were managed through public-private partnerships.
Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda – Decentralization and public-private partnerships
Investments in rural water supply increased substantially since 2002, leading to a significant increase in access to water supply in rural areas from 57% in 2005 to 71% in 2007 according to government figures.
Administrative divisions of the Maldives – Decentralization
On October 15, 2010, the government released a finalized list of the administrative constituencies established under the Decentralization Act. It listed 184 administrative constituencies. Out of these constituencies:
Administrative divisions of the Maldives – Decentralization
* 2 constituencies were declared “cities”, as according to the criteria for determining cities in this act. These two constituencies were Male’ and Seenu Atoll. After a referendum among the people, Seenu Atoll was renamed Addu City”. Each city would be served by a city council.
Administrative divisions of the Maldives – Decentralization
* 181 constituencies were declared “islands”, as according to the criteria for determining islands in this act. These islands are grouped together into 18 atolls. Each atoll shall be served by an atoll council, under which each island has its own island council.
Administrative divisions of the Maldives – Decentralization
* 1 constituency, Fuvahmulah, was declared an “atoll”, and was split into 8 wards at island constituency level. Each ward will have its own island council, who shall be governed by an atoll council. Fuvahmulah serves as the country’s 19th atoll.
Water supply and sanitation in Mexico – 1983-1989: Decentralization
Under President Miguel de la Madrid, municipalities were entrusted with providing water supply and sanitation services within the framework of a general decentralization process
Petro Poroshenko – Decentralization of power
In mid-June Poroshenko started the process of amending Ukraine’s constitution to achieve Ukraine’s Decentralization#Administrative|administrative decentralization
Boulder City, NV – Trendsetter for decentralization
The nearby city of Henderson, Nevada|Henderson, founded in 1943 and based around the magnesium industry, was another early example of decentralization before Clark County had a significant population: …the region began to decentralize and regroup as a multi-centered area early in its history.Gottdiener, Collins Dickens, p
International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas – Decentralization
ICARDA’s decentralization builds on and strengthens the Center’s existing organization. Staff have been relocated to Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Ethiopia, Egypt, Tunisia, and Turkey, and the Center has established temporary headquarters in Beirut, Lebanon.
International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas – Decentralization
Adoption of a more decentralized system will enhance the relevance, effectiveness, and impact of ICARDA’s research activities; better target diverse environments; and better align the Center with target areas in the CGIAR Research Programs (CRPs) in which ICARDA is involved, including the ICARDA-led CGIAR Research Program on Dryland Systems.
Health in Senegal – Decentralization
Decentralization has meant that authorities have completely failed to engage with women’s situations and concerns
For More Information, Visit: